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How can adding a candidate change who wins?

An election result can change without anyone changing their mind about the original candidates. Under plurality voting, each ballot counts only for its first available choice. Add another candidate and some votes move to that option, potentially changing which of the original two finishes ahead. A small fictional election makes the rule’s role visible.

3–7 min

Questions you could explore

  • What must remain fixed in voters’ rankings for the example to show a candidate-list effect?
  • How could a voting method choose a different winner after a losing candidate is removed?

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Politics and society

Why are some constitutions so much harder to change than others?

A constitution is meant to outlast the government of the day, yet it also needs a way to adapt when society changes. Some countries require supermajorities in parliament, others demand a national referendum, and a few make certain clauses completely unamendable. Designing an amendment rule means balancing stability against the risk of locking future generations into the past.

4–6 min

Why are some constitutions so much harder to change than others?

Politics and society4–6 minA constitution is meant to outlast the government of the day, yet it also needs a way to adapt when society changes. Some countries require supermajorities in parliament, others demand a national referendum, and a few make certain clauses completely unamendable. Designing an amendment rule means balancing stability against the risk of locking future generations into the past.

Politics and society

How ranked-choice voting turns second choices into winners

Ranked ballots can transfer when a candidate is eliminated; some proportional systems also transfer surplus votes after a candidate is elected. A ranking can therefore matter beyond the first choice. Explore how different counting rules use those preferences, rather than assuming every ranked-choice system follows the same procedure.

5–7 min

How ranked-choice voting turns second choices into winners

Politics and society5–7 minRanked ballots can transfer when a candidate is eliminated; some proportional systems also transfer surplus votes after a candidate is elected. A ranking can therefore matter beyond the first choice. Explore how different counting rules use those preferences, rather than assuming every ranked-choice system follows the same procedure.

Politics and society

How do you select a citizens’ assembly without holding an election?

How could a group of ordinary citizens broadly reflect a country without running for office? Citizens' assemblies can use civic lotteries, or sortition, to invite randomly selected people and then select from volunteers against demographic criteria. The result aims for a cross-section of the population rather than an elected chamber or an unrestricted sign-up list.

4–5 min

How do you select a citizens’ assembly without holding an election?

Politics and society4–5 minHow could a group of ordinary citizens broadly reflect a country without running for office? Citizens' assemblies can use civic lotteries, or sortition, to invite randomly selected people and then select from volunteers against demographic criteria. The result aims for a cross-section of the population rather than an elected chamber or an unrestricted sign-up list.

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